Silver Wolf Form With Black Tipped Hair on Body Drawing

Mythological homo who tin transform into a wolflike creature

Werewolf

Woodcut of a werewolf attack by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 1512
Group	Mythology
Other proper name(southward)	Lycanthrope

In folklore, a werewolf ^[a] (One-time English: werwulf , "human being-wolf"), or occasionally lycanthrope (Greek: λυκάνθρωπος lukánthrōpos, "wolf-human"), is a man with the ability to shapeshift into a wolf (or, specially in modern film, a therianthropic hybrid wolflike fauna), either purposely or after beingness placed under a curse or affliction (often a bite or scratch from another werewolf) with the transformations occurring on the night of a full moon. Early sources for belief in this ability or disease, called lycanthropy , are Petronius (27–66) and Gervase of Tilbury (1150–1228).

The werewolf is a widespread concept in European folklore, existing in many variants, which are related past a common evolution of a Christian estimation of underlying European sociology adult during the medieval flow. From the early modern menstruum, werewolf beliefs also spread to the New Globe with colonialism. Conventionalities in werewolves developed in parallel to the belief in witches, in the course of the Late Heart Ages and the Early Modern period. Similar the witchcraft trials as a whole, the trial of supposed werewolves emerged in what is now Switzerland (especially the Valais and Vaud) in the early on 15th century and spread throughout Europe in the 16th, peaking in the 17th and subsiding past the 18th century.

The persecution of werewolves and the associated sociology is an integral function of the "witch-hunt" phenomenon, albeit a marginal i, accusations of lycanthropy being involved in simply a small fraction of witchcraft trials.^[b] During the early period, accusations of lycanthropy (transformation into a wolf) were mixed with accusations of wolf-riding or wolf-charming. The instance of Peter Stumpp (1589) led to a meaning peak in both involvement in and persecution of supposed werewolves, primarily in French-speaking and German-speaking Europe. The miracle persisted longest in Bavaria and Austria, with persecution of wolf-charmers recorded until well afterwards 1650, the final cases taking identify in the early 18th century in Carinthia and Styria.^[c]

After the stop of the witch-trials, the werewolf became of interest in sociology studies and in the emerging Gothic horror genre; werewolf fiction every bit a genre has pre-modern precedents in medieval romances (e.g. Bisclavret and Guillaume de Palerme) and developed in the 18th century out of the "semi-fictional" chap book tradition. The trappings of horror literature in the 20th century became part of the horror and fantasy genre of modern popular culture.

Names

The word werewolf comes from the Old English language word werwulf, a chemical compound of wer "human being" and wulf "wolf". The only Onetime High German testimony is in the class of a given name, Weriuuolf, although an early Middle High German language werwolf is found in Burchard of Worms and Berthold of Regensburg. The word or concept does not occur in medieval German poetry or fiction, gaining popularity only from the 15th century. Middle Latin gerulphus Anglo-Norman garwalf, Old Frankish *wariwulf.^{[1] [2]} Old Norse had the cognate varúlfur, only because of the high importance of werewolves in Norse mythology, at that place were alternative terms such as ulfhéðinn ("1 in wolf-skin", referring still to the totemistic or cultic adoption of wolf-nature rather than the superstitious belief in actual shapeshifting). In modern Scandinavian, kveldulf was as well used "evening-wolf", presumably later on the proper noun of Kveldulf Bjalfason, a historical berserker of the 9th century who figures in the Icelandic sagas.

The term lycanthropy, referring both to the ability to transform oneself into a wolf and to the human action of so doing, comes from Ancient Greek λυκάνθρωπος lukánthropos (from λύκος lúkos "wolf" and ἄνθρωπος, ánthrōpos "human being").^[3] The word does occur in ancient Greek sources, only simply in Late Antiquity, only rarely, and merely in the context of clinical lycanthropy described by Galen, where the patient had the ravenous appetite and other qualities of a wolf; the Greek word attains some currency only in Byzantine Greek, featuring in the 10th-century encyclopedia Suda.^[4] Use of the Greek-derived lycanthropy in English occurs in learned writing starting time in the later 16th century (beginning recorded 1584 in The Discoverie of Witchcraft by Reginald Scot, who argued against the reality of werewolves; "Lycanthropia is a affliction, and not a transformation." 5. i. 92), at starting time explicitly for clinical lycanthropy, i.e. the blazon of insanity where the patient imagines to have transformed into a wolf, and not in reference to supposedly real shapeshifting. Use of lycanthropy for supposed shapeshifting is much after, introduced ca. 1830.

Slavic uses the term vlko-dlak (Polish wilkołak, Czech vlkodlak, Slovak vlkolak, Serbo-Croatian вукодлак - vukodlak, Slovenian volkodlak, Bulgarian върколак/vrkolak, Byelorussian ваўкалак/vaukalak, Ukrainian вовкулака/vovkulaka), literally "wolf-skin", paralleling the Old Norse ulfhéðinn. However, the give-and-take is not attested in the medieval period. The Slavic term was loaned into modern Greek as Vrykolakas. Baltic has related terms, Lithuanian vilkolakis and vilkatas, Latvian vilkatis and vilkacis. The name vurdalak (вурдалак) for the Slavic vampire ("ghoul, revenant") is a abuse due to the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin, which was subsequently widely spread by A.M. Tolstoy in his novella The Family of the Vourdalak (composed in French, but starting time published in a Russian translation in 1884).

History

Indo-European comparative mythology

Dolon wearing a wolf-pare. Attic cherry-figure vase, c. 460 BC.

The werewolf folklore found in Europe harks back to a mutual development during the Middle Ages, arising in the context of Christianisation, and the associated estimation of pre-Christian mythology in Christian terms. Their underlying common origin can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European mythology, where lycanthropy is reconstructed as an aspect of the initiation of the warrior grade. This is reflected in Iron Age Europe in the Tierkrieger depictions from the Germanic sphere, among others. The standard comparative overview of this attribute of Indo-European mythology is McCone (1987).^[5] Such transformations of "men into wolves" in pagan cult were associated with the devil from the early medieval perspective.

The concept of the werewolf in Western and Northern Europe is strongly influenced past the office of the wolf in Germanic paganism (e.chiliad. the French loup-garou is ultimately a loan from the Germanic term), simply at that place are related traditions in other parts of Europe which were not necessarily influenced by Germanic tradition, especially in Slavic Europe and the Balkans, and perchance in areas adjoining the Indo-European sphere (the Caucasus) or where Indo-European cultures have been replaced by military conquest in the medieval era (Republic of hungary, Anatolia).^{[ clarification needed ]}

In his Human being into Wolf (1948), Robert Eisler tried to bandage the Indo-European tribal names meaning "wolf" or "wolf-men" in terms of "the European transition from fruit gathering to predatory hunting."^{[ clarification needed ] [6]}

Classical antiquity

A few references to men changing into wolves are establish in Ancient Greek literature and mythology. Herodotus, in his Histories,^[7] wrote that the Neuri, a tribe he places to the north-east of Scythia, were all transformed into wolves once every year for several days, and so changed dorsum to their human shape. This tale was also mentioned by Pomponius Mela.^[8]

In the 2nd century BC, the Greek geographer Pausanias related the story of King Lycaon of Arcadia, who was transformed into a wolf because he had sacrificed a kid in the altar of Zeus Lycaeus.^[9] In the version of the fable told by Ovid in his Metamorphoses,^[10] when Zeus visits Lycaon disguised as a mutual homo, Lycaon wants to test if he is really a god. To that end, he kills a Molossian earnest and serve his entrails to Zeus. Disgusted, the god turns Lycaon into a wolf. Withal, in other accounts of the fable, like that of Apollodorus' Bibliotheca,^[xi] Zeus blasts him and his sons with thunderbolts as penalty.

Pausanias likewise relates the story of an Arcadian man called Damarchus of Parrhasia, who was turned into a wolf after tasting the entrails of a human child sacrificed to Zeus Lycaeus. He was restored to human form 10 years later and went on to become an Olympic champion.^[12] This tale is too recounted past Pliny the Elder, who calls the man Demaenetus quoting Agriopas.^[13] Co-ordinate to Pausanias, this was not a 1-off event, only that men take been transformed into wolves during the sacrifices to Zeus Lycaeus since the fourth dimension of Lycaon. If they abstain of tasting human being mankind while being wolves, they would be restored to human form nine years later, only if they do they will remains wolves forever.^[nine]

Pliny the Elder likewise recounts another tale of lycanthropy. Quoting Euanthes,^[14] he mentions that in Arcadia, once a twelvemonth a man was called by lot from the Anthus' clan. The chosen man was escorted to a marsh in the area, where he hung his dress into an oak tree, swam across the marsh and transformed into a wolf, joining a pack for ix years. If during these nine years he refrained from tasting human being flesh, he returned to the same marsh, swam dorsum and recovered his previous human being form, with nine years added to his appearance.^[15] Ovid as well relates stories of men who roamed the woods of Arcadia in the grade of wolves.^{[16] [17]}

Virgil, in his poetic work Eclogues, wrote about a human called Moeris, who used herbs and poisons picked in his native Pontus to turn himself into a wolf.^[18] In prose, the Satyricon, written circa Ad 60 past Gaius Petronius Czar, 1 of the characters, Niceros, tells a story at a banquet about a friend who turned into a wolf (chs. 61–62). He describes the incident every bit follows, "When I look for my buddy I come across he'd stripped and piled his clothes past the roadside... He pees in a circle round his clothes and and so, just like that, turns into a wolf!... after he turned into a wolf he started howling and and then ran off into the woods."^[19]

Early Christian authors also mentioned werewolves. In The Metropolis of God, Augustine of Hippo gives an account like to that found in Pliny the Elderberry. Augustine explains that "It is very generally believed that by certain witches spells men may be turned into wolves..."^[xx] Physical metamorphosis was also mentioned in the Capitulatum Episcopi, attributed to the Council of Ancyra in the quaternary century, which became the Church building'southward doctrinal text in relation to magic, witches, and transformations such as those of werewolves.^[21] The Capitulatum Episcopi states that "Whoever believes that anything can be...transformed into another species or likeness, except by God Himself...is beyond dubiety an heathen.'^[21]

In these works of Roman writers, werewolves often receive the name versipellis ("turnskin"). Augustine instead uses the phrase "in lupum fuisse mutatum" (inverse into the course of a wolf) to draw the physical metamorphosis of werewolves, which is similar to phrases used in the medieval menstruum.

Centre Ages

There is evidence of widespread belief in werewolves in medieval Europe. This evidence spans much of the Continent, likewise equally the British Isles. Werewolves were mentioned in Medieval law codes, such as that of King Cnut, whose Ecclesiastical Ordinances inform us that the codes aim to ensure that "…the madly adventurous werewolf do not too widely devastate, nor bite too many of the spiritual flock.'^[22] Liutprand of Cremona reports a rumor that Bajan, son of Simeon I of Bulgaria, could use magic to turn himself into a wolf.^[23] The works of Augustine of Hippo had a large influence on the development of Western Christianity, and were widely read by churchmen of the medieval period; and these churchmen occasionally discussed werewolves in their works. Famous examples include Gerald of Wales'southward Werewolves of Ossory, found in his Topographica Hibernica, and in Gervase of Tilbury's Otia Imperiala, both written for royal audiences.

Gervase reveals to the reader that belief in such transformations (he also mentions women turning into cats and into snakes) was widespread across Europe; he uses the phrase "que ita dinoscuntur" when discussing these metamorphoses, which translates to "it is known". Gervase, who was writing in Germany, also tells the reader that the transformation of men into wolves cannot be hands dismissed, for "...in England we have often seen men change into wolves" ("Vidimus enim frequenter in Anglia per lunationes homines in lupos mutari…").^[24] Farther prove of the widespread belief in werewolves and other human being-fauna transformations tin be seen in theological attacks fabricated confronting such behavior. Conrad of Hirsau, writing in the 11th century, forbids the reading of stories in which a person'southward reason is obscured following such a transformation.^[25] Conrad specifically refers to the tales of Ovid in his tract. Pseudo-Augustine, writing in the 12th century, follows Augustine of Hippo's argument that no concrete transformation can be made by whatever just God, stating that "...the body corporeally [cannot], exist changed into the material limbs of whatsoever animal.'^[26]

Marie de France's verse form Bisclavret (c. 1200) is another example, in which the eponymous nobleman Bisclavret, for reasons not described, had to transform into a wolf every week. When his treacherous wife stole his clothing needed to restore his human being form, he escaped the male monarch'south wolf chase past imploring the king for mercy and accompanied the rex thereafter. His behavior at courtroom was gentle, until his wife and her new husband appeared at court, and then much so that his hateful attack on the couple was deemed justly motivated, and the truth was revealed. This lai (a type of Breton sung-poem) follows many themes found within other werewolf tales - the removal of vesture and attempting to refrain from the consumption of human flesh tin be establish in Pliny the Elder, as well as in the second of Gervase of Tilbury'due south werewolf stories, near a werewolf past the name of Chaucevaire. Marie also reveals to us the existence of werewolf conventionalities in Breton and Norman France, by telling united states of america the Franco-Norman word for werewolf: garwulf, which, she explains, are common in that part of France, where "...many men turned into werewolves".^[27] Gervase besides supports this terminology when he tells us that the French use the term "gerulfi" to describe what the English language call "werewolves".^[28] Melion and Biclarel are 2 anonymous lais that share the theme of a werewolf knight being betrayed by his wife.^[29]

The German word werwolf is recorded by Burchard von Worms in the 11th century, and by Bertold of Regensburg in the 13th, merely is not recorded in all of medieval German poetry or fiction. While Baring-Gould argues that references to werewolves were too rare in England, presumably because any significance the "wolf-men" of Germanic paganism had carried, the associated beliefs and practices had been successfully repressed after Christianization (or if they persisted, they did so outside of the sphere of literacy available to us), we take sources other than those mentioned higher up.^[30] Such examples of werewolves in Republic of ireland and the British Isles can exist found in the piece of work of the ninth century Welsh monk Nennius; female werewolves appear in the Irish gaelic work Tales of the Elders, from the 12th century; and Welsh werewolves in the 12th-13th century Mabinogion.

In 1539, Martin Luther used the form beerwolf to describe a hypothetical ruler worse than a tyrant who must be resisted.^[31]

The Germanic pagan traditions associated with wolf-men persisted longest in the Scandinavian Viking Historic period. Harald I of Kingdom of norway is known to have had a body of Úlfhednar (wolf-coated [men]), which are mentioned in the Vatnsdœla saga, Haraldskvæði, and the Völsunga saga, and resemble some werewolf legends. The Úlfhednar were fighters like to the berserkers, though they dressed in wolf hides rather than those of bears and were reputed to channel the spirits of these animals to enhance effectiveness in battle.^[32] These warriors were resistant to pain and killed viciously in battle, much like wild animals. Úlfhednar and berserkers are closely associated with the Norse god Odin.

The Scandinavian traditions of this period may have spread to Kievan Rus', giving rise to the Slavic "werewolf" tales. The 11th-century Belarusian Prince Vseslav of Polotsk was considered to have been a werewolf, capable of moving at superhuman speeds, as recounted in The Tale of Igor'due south Campaign:

Vseslav the prince judged men; every bit prince, he ruled towns; simply at night he prowled in the guise of a wolf. From Kiev, prowling, he reached, before the cocks crew, Tmutorokan. The path of Swell Dominicus, equally a wolf, prowling, he crossed. For him in Polotsk they rang for matins early at St. Sophia the bells; just he heard the ringing in Kiev.

The state of affairs as described during the medieval period gives rise to the dual grade of werewolf sociology in Early Modernistic Europe. On one hand the "Germanic" werewolf, which becomes associated with the witchcraft panic from around 1400, and on the other hand the "Slavic" werewolf or vlkolak, which becomes associated with the concept of the revenant or "vampire". The "eastern" werewolf-vampire is plant in the folklore of Central and Eastern Europe, including Hungary, Romania and the Balkans, while the "western" werewolf-sorcerer is found in France, High german-speaking Europe and in the Baltic.

Early modern history

At that place were numerous reports of werewolf attacks – and consequent court trials – in 16th-century France. In some of the cases there was clear bear witness against the defendant of murder and cannibalism, only none of association with wolves; in other cases people accept been terrified by such creatures, such as that of Gilles Garnier in Dole in 1573, in that location was clear evidence against some wolf but none against the defendant.^{[ citation needed ]}

Being a werewolf was a common accusation in witch trials throughout their history, and it featured even in the Valais witch trials, one of the primeval such trials altogether, in the first half of the 15th century. Likewise, in the Vaud, child-eating werewolves were reported equally early as 1448. A summit of attention to lycanthropy came in the late 16th to early on 17th century, as office of the European witch-hunts. A number of treatises on werewolves were written in France during 1595 and 1615. Werewolves were sighted in 1598 in Anjou, and a teenage werewolf was sentenced to life imprisonment in Bordeaux in 1603. Henry Boguet wrote a lengthy affiliate about werewolves in 1602. In the Vaud, werewolves were convicted in 1602 and in 1624. A treatise by a Vaud pastor in 1653, yet, argued that lycanthropy was purely an illusion. After this, the only farther tape from the Vaud dates to 1670: information technology is that of a boy who claimed he and his female parent could alter themselves into wolves, which was, withal, non taken seriously. At the beginning of the 17th century witchcraft was prosecuted by James I of England, who regarded "warwoolfes" as victims of delusion induced by "a natural superabundance of melancholic".^[33] Subsequently 1650, belief in Lycanthropy had by and large disappeared from French-speaking Europe, equally evidenced in Diderot's Encyclopedia, which attributed reports of lycanthropy to a "disorder of the brain.^[34] although there were continuing reports of extraordinary wolflike beasts but they were not considered to be werewolves. 1 such report concerned the Beast of Gévaudan which terrorized the general area of the old province of Gévaudan, now called Lozère, in south-fundamental France; from the years 1764 to 1767, it killed upwards of fourscore men, women, and children. The office of Europe which showed more than vigorous interest in werewolves later on 1650 was the Holy Roman Empire. At least 9 works on lycanthropy were printed in Germany between 1649 and 1679. In the Austrian and Bavarian Alps, belief in werewolves persisted well into the 18th century.^[35] In any instance, as tardily as in 1853, in Galicia, northwestern Spain, Manuel Blanco Romasanta was judged and condemned as the author of a number of murders, only he claimed to exist non guilty because of his status of lobishome, werewolf.

Until the 20th century, wolf attacks on humans were an occasional, but still widespread feature of life in Europe.^[36] Some scholars take suggested that information technology was inevitable that wolves, being the virtually feared predators in Europe, were projected into the folklore of evil shapeshifters. This is said to be corroborated by the fact that areas devoid of wolves typically use dissimilar kinds of predator to make full the niche; werehyenas in Africa, weretigers in Bharat,^[32] as well every bit werepumas ("runa uturuncu")^{[37] [38]} and werejaguars ("yaguaraté-abá" or "tigre-capiango")^{[39] [40]} in southern South America.

An idea is explored in Sabine Baring-Gould's work The Book of Werewolves is that werewolf legends may have been used to explicate series killings. Perhaps the well-nigh infamous example is the example of Peter Stumpp (executed in 1589), the German farmer, and alleged series killer and cannibal, as well known equally the Werewolf of Bedburg.^[41]

Asian cultures

In Asian Cultures^{[ which? ]}, the "were" equivalent is a weretiger or wereleopard. (See werecats)

Common Turkic sociology holds a different, reverential light to the werewolf legends in that Turkic Central Asian shamans after performing long and arduous rites would voluntarily be able to transform into the humanoid "Kurtadam" (literally meaning Wolfman). Since the wolf was the totemic ancestor beast of the Turkic peoples, they would exist respectful of whatever shaman who was in such a class.

Lycanthropy as a medical condition

Some modern researchers have tried to explain the reports of werewolf behaviour with recognised medical conditions. Dr Lee Illis of Guy'south Infirmary in London wrote a paper in 1963 entitled On Porphyria and the Aetiology of Werewolves, in which he argues that historical accounts on werewolves could take in fact been referring to victims of congenital porphyria, stating how the symptoms of photosensitivity, cerise teeth and psychosis could have been grounds for accusing a sufferer of being a werewolf.^[42] This is notwithstanding argued against past Woodward, who points out how mythological werewolves were most invariably portrayed as resembling truthful wolves, and that their human forms were rarely physically conspicuous equally porphyria victims.^[32] Others have pointed out the possibility of historical werewolves having been sufferers of hypertrichosis, a hereditary condition manifesting itself in excessive hair growth. However, Woodward dismissed the possibility, as the rarity of the disease ruled information technology out from happening on a large calibration, as werewolf cases were in medieval Europe.^[32] People suffering from Down's syndrome have been suggested by some scholars to accept been possible originators of werewolf myths.^[43] Woodward suggested rabies as the origin of werewolf beliefs, challenge remarkable similarities between the symptoms of that disease and some of the legends. Woodward focused on the idea that being bitten past a werewolf could result in the victim turning into ane, which suggested the idea of a transmittable disease like rabies.^[32] However, the thought that lycanthropy could be transmitted in this fashion is non function of the original myths and legends and only appears in relatively contempo beliefs. Lycanthropy can also be met with as the main content of a delusion, for instance, the case of a woman has been reported who during episodes of acute psychosis complained of becoming iv unlike species of animals.^[44]

Folk beliefs

A German woodcut from 1722

Characteristics

The beliefs classed together under lycanthropy are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat capriciously practical. The transformation may be temporary or permanent; the were-animal may be the man himself metamorphosed; may exist his double whose activity leaves the existent man to all appearance unchanged; may be his soul, which goes forth seeking whomever it may devour, leaving its body in a country of trance; or information technology may exist no more than than the messenger of the human being, a real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connection with its owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, past a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the human being.

Werewolves were said in European folklore to acquit tell-tale concrete traits even in their human class. These included the meeting of both eyebrows at the bridge of the nose, curved fingernails, low-set ears and a swinging step. One method of identifying a werewolf in its man form was to cut the flesh of the accused, under the pretense that fur would exist seen within the wound. A Russian superstition recalls a werewolf can be recognized by bristles under the natural language.^[32] The appearance of a werewolf in its animal form varies from culture to culture, though information technology is near ordinarily portrayed every bit being indistinguishable from ordinary wolves relieve for the fact that it has no tail (a trait idea characteristic of witches in beast form), is often larger, and retains human eyes and a phonation. According to some Swedish accounts, the werewolf could be distinguished from a regular wolf past the fact that information technology would run on iii legs, stretching the fourth one backwards to wait similar a tail.^[45] Later on returning to their human forms, werewolves are unremarkably documented equally condign weak, debilitated and undergoing painful nervous depression.^[32] Ane universally reviled trait in medieval Europe was the werewolf's habit of devouring recently buried corpses, a trait that is documented extensively, particularly in the Annales Medico-psychologiques in the 19th century.^[32]

Condign a werewolf

Various methods for becoming a werewolf accept been reported, one of the simplest beingness the removal of clothing and putting on a belt made of wolfskin, probably as a substitute for the assumption of an unabridged beast skin (which also is ofttimes described).^[46] In other cases, the body is rubbed with a magic save.^[46] Drinking rainwater out of the footprint of the beast in question or from sure enchanted streams were also considered effectual modes of accomplishing metamorphosis.^[47] The 16th-century Swedish writer Olaus Magnus says that the Livonian werewolves were initiated by draining a cup of specially prepared beer and repeating a ready formula. Ralston in his Songs of the Russian People gives the form of incantation withal familiar in Russia. In Italy, France and Germany, it was said that a man or woman could turn into a werewolf if he or she, on a sure Wednesday or Friday, slept exterior on a summer nighttime with the full moon shining straight on his or her face.^[32]

In other cases, the transformation was supposedly accomplished by Satanic allegiance for the nigh loathsome ends, ofttimes for the sake of sating a craving for human being flesh. "The werewolves", writes Richard Verstegan (Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, 1628),

are certayne sorcerers, who having annoynted their bodies with an ointment which they brand by the instinct of the devil, and putting on a certayne inchaunted girdle, does not simply unto the view of others seem equally wolves, but to their own thinking have both the shape and nature of wolves, so long every bit they wear the said girdle. And they do dispose themselves every bit very wolves, in worrying and killing, and near of humane creatures.

The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, every bit a messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are as well attributed to the wizard, male and female person, all the world over; and witch superstitions are closely parallel to, if non identical with, lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary grapheme of lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in connectedness with the bush-soul of the Westward African and the nagual of Central America; merely though at that place is no line of demarcation to be drawn on logical grounds, the causeless power of the wizard and the intimate clan of the bush-soul or the nagual with a human beingness are not termed lycanthropy.

The curse of lycanthropy was also considered by some scholars every bit being a divine punishment. Werewolf literature shows many examples of God or saints allegedly cursing those who invoked their wrath with lycanthropy. Such is the example of Lycaon, who was turned into a wolf by Zeus equally punishment for slaughtering one of his own sons and serving his remains to the gods as a dinner. Those who were excommunicated by the Roman Cosmic Church were also said to become werewolves.^[32]

The power of transforming others into wild beasts was attributed not only to cancerous sorcerers, but to Christian saints as well. Omnes angeli, boni et Republic of mali, ex virtute naturali habent potestatem transmutandi corpora nostra ("All angels, practiced and bad have the power of transmutating our bodies") was the dictum of St. Thomas Aquinas. St. Patrick was said to have transformed the Welsh Male monarch Vereticus into a wolf; Natalis supposedly cursed an illustrious Irish family whose members were each doomed to exist a wolf for seven years. In other tales the divine agency is even more direct, while in Russia, once again, men supposedly became werewolves when incurring the wrath of the Devil.

A notable exception to the association of Lycanthropy and the Devil, comes from a rare and lesser known account of an 80-yr-old man named Thiess. In 1692, in Jürgensburg, Livonia, Thiess testified nether oath that he and other werewolves were the Hounds of God.^[48] He claimed they were warriors who descended into hell to battle witches and demons. Their efforts ensured that the Devil and his minions did not carry off the grain from local failed crops downward to hell. Thiess was steadfast in his assertions, claiming that werewolves in Germany and Russia also did battle with the devil's minions in their own versions of hell, and insisted that when werewolves died, their souls were welcomed into sky every bit reward for their service. Thiess was ultimately sentenced to ten lashes for idolatry and superstitious conventionalities.

Remedies

Various methods accept existed for removing the werewolf form. In antiquity, the Ancient Greeks and Romans believed in the ability of exhaustion in curing people of lycanthropy. The victim would be subjected to long periods of physical activity in the hope of being purged of the malady. This practice stemmed from the fact that many declared werewolves would be left feeling weak and debilitated subsequently committing depredations.^[32]

In medieval Europe, traditionally, at that place are three methods one can apply to cure a victim of lycanthropy; medicinally (ordinarily via the utilize of wolfsbane), surgically, or by exorcism. However, many of the cures advocated by medieval medical practitioners proved fatal to the patients. A Sicilian conventionalities of Arabic origin holds that a werewolf can be cured of its ailment by hitting it on the brow or scalp with a knife. Another belief from the aforementioned civilisation involves the piercing of the werewolf's hands with nails. Sometimes, less extreme methods were used. In the German lowland of Schleswig-Holstein, a werewolf could exist cured if 1 were to simply address it three times by its Christian name, while one Danish belief holds that simply scolding a werewolf will cure it.^[32] Conversion to Christianity is also a common method of removing lycanthropy in the medieval period; a devotion to St. Hubert has also been cited equally both cure for and protection from lycanthropes.

Connexion to revenants

Before the end of the 19th century, the Greeks believed that the corpses of werewolves, if not destroyed, would render to life in the form of wolves or hyenas which prowled battlefields, drinking the blood of dying soldiers. In the same vein, in some rural areas of Germany, Poland and Northern France, it was one time believed that people who died in mortal sin came dorsum to life as blood-drinking wolves. These "undead" werewolves would return to their human corpse form at daylight. They were dealt with by decapitation with a spade and exorcism by the parish priest. The head would then be thrown into a stream, where the weight of its sins was thought to weigh it downward. Sometimes, the same methods used to dispose of ordinary vampires would be used. The vampire was also linked to the werewolf in E European countries, specially Bulgaria, Serbia and Slovenia. In Serbia, the werewolf and vampire are known collectively as vulkodlak.^[32]

Hungary and Balkans

In Hungarian folklore, the werewolves used to live specially in the region of Transdanubia, and it was thought that the ability to modify into a wolf was obtained in the babe age, later on the suffering of abuse past the parents or past a expletive. At the historic period of vii the male child or the daughter leaves the house, goes hunting past night and can change to a person or wolf whenever he wants. The curse can also be obtained when in the machismo the person passed iii times through an curvation made of a Birch with the aid of a wild rose's spine.

The werewolves were known to exterminate all kind of farm animals, especially sheep. The transformation ordinarily occurred during the winter solstice, Easter and a full moon. After in the 17th and 18th century, the trials in Republic of hungary not just were conducted confronting witches, just confronting werewolves too, and many records exist creating connections between both kinds. Also the vampires and werewolves are closely related in Hungary, being both feared in the artifact.^[49]

Among the South Slavs, and also among the ethnic Kashubian people in present-mean solar day northern Poland, there was the belief that if a child was born with hair, a birthmark or a caul on their head, they were supposed to possess shapeshifting abilities. Though capable of turning into whatsoever creature they wished, information technology was commonly believed that such people preferred to turn into a wolf.^[fifty]

Serbian vukodlaks traditionally had the habit of congregating annually in the winter months, when they would strip off their wolf skins and hang them from trees. They would then go a hold of another vulkodlak 's pare and burn down it, releasing from its curse the vukodlak from whom the skin came.^[32]

Caucasus

Co-ordinate to Armenian lore, there are women who, in issue of deadly sins, are condemned to spend seven years in wolf form.^[51] In a typical business relationship, a condemned woman is visited by a wolfskin-toting spirit, who orders her to wear the skin, which causes her to acquire frightful cravings for human flesh before long subsequently. With her better nature overcome, the she-wolf devours each of her own children, and so her relatives' children in order of relationship, and finally the children of strangers. She wanders just at night, with doors and locks springing open at her approach. When morning arrives, she reverts to human being form and removes her wolfskin. The transformation is mostly said to exist involuntary, but there are alternate versions involving voluntary metamorphosis, where the women tin can transform at will.

Americas and Caribbean

The Naskapis believed that the caribou afterlife is guarded by giant wolves which kill careless hunters venturing too nearly. The Navajo people feared witches in wolf'southward clothing called "Mai-cob".^[43] Woodward thought that these beliefs were due to the Norse colonization of the Americas.^[32] When the European colonization of the Americas occurred, the pioneers brought their own werewolf folklore with them and were later influenced by the lore of their neighbouring colonies and those of the Natives. Belief in the loup-garou present in Canada, the Upper and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan^[52] and upstate New York, originates from French folklore influenced by Native American stories on the Wendigo. In Mexico, at that place is a belief in a fauna called the nagual. In Haiti, there is a superstition that werewolf spirits known locally as Jé-rouge (cherry-red optics) can possess the bodies of unwitting persons and nightly transform them into cannibalistic lupine creatures. The Haitian jé-rouges typically attempt to trick mothers into giving away their children voluntarily by waking them at night and request their permission to take their child, to which the disoriented mother may either respond yes or no. The Haitian jé-rouges differ from traditional European werewolves by their addiction of actively trying to spread their lycanthropic status to others, much like vampires.^[32]

Mod reception

Werewolf fiction

Most mod fiction describes werewolves as vulnerable to silvery weapons and highly resistant to other injuries. This characteristic appears in German folklore of the 19th century.^[53] The claim that the Beast of Gévaudan, an 18th-century wolf or wolflike creature, was shot by a argent bullet appears to take been introduced by novelists retelling the story from 1935 onwards and not in earlier versions.^{[54] [55] [56]} English language folklore, prior to 1865, showed shapeshifters to be vulnerable to silver. "...till the publican shot a silver button over their heads when they were instantly transformed into two ill-favoured old ladies..."^[57] c. 1640 the metropolis of Greifswald, Frg was infested by werewolves. "A clever lad suggested that they get together all their silver buttons, goblets, belt buckles, so forth, and melt them down into bullets for their muskets and pistols. ... this time they slaughtered the creatures and rid Greifswald of the lycanthropes."^[58]

The 1897 novel Dracula and the short story "Dracula'southward Invitee", both written by Bram Stoker, drew on earlier mythologies of werewolves and like legendary demons and "was to phonation the anxieties of an age", and the "fears of late Victorian patriarchy".^[59] In "Dracula's Guest," a band of military horsemen coming to the aid of the protagonist chase off Dracula, depicted every bit a great wolf stating the merely manner to kill it is by a "Sacred Bullet".^[sixty] This is likewise mentioned in the main novel Dracula as well. Count Dracula stated in the novel that legends of werewolves originated from his Szekely racial bloodline,^[61] who himself is too depicted with the ability to shapeshift into a wolf at will during the night but is unable to do so during the day except at noon.^[62]

The 1928 novel The Wolf'due south Helpmate: A Tale from Estonia, written past the Finnish author Aino Kallas, tells story of the forester Priidik'south wife Aalo living in Hiiumaa in the 17th century, who became a werewolf under the influence of a malevolent wood spirit, also known equally Diabolus Sylvarum.^[63]

The beginning feature picture show to apply an anthropomorphic werewolf was Werewolf of London in 1935. The primary werewolf of this picture is a dapper London scientist who retains some of his way and nigh of his human features later on his transformation,^[64] as pb actor Henry Hull was unwilling to spend long hours beingness made upwardly past makeup creative person Jack Pierce.^[65] Universal Studios drew on a Balkan tale of a plant associated with lycanthropy every bit in that location was no literary piece of work to draw upon, different the instance with vampires. There is no reference to silver nor other aspects of werewolf lore such as cannibalism.^[66]

A more tragic character is Lawrence Talbot, played past Lon Chaney Jr. in 1941'southward The Wolf Human being. With Pierce'southward makeup more elaborate this time,^[67] the movie catapulted the werewolf into public consciousness.^[64] Sympathetic portrayals are few but notable, such as the comedic but tortured protagonist David Naughton in An American Werewolf in London,^[68] and a less anguished and more than confident and charismatic Jack Nicholson in the 1994 film Wolf.^[69] Over time, the depiction of werewolves has gone from fully malevolent to even heroic creatures, such as in the Underworld and Twilight serial, too as Blood Lad, Dance in the Vampire Bund, Rosario + Vampire, and diverse other movies, anime, manga, and comic books.

Other werewolves are decidedly more than willful and malevolent, such as those in the novel The Howling and its subsequent sequels and film adaptations. The class a werewolf assumes was mostly anthropomorphic in early films such as The Wolf Man and Werewolf of London, but a larger and powerful wolf in many after films.^[70]

Werewolves are oftentimes depicted as immune to damage caused by ordinary weapons, being vulnerable only to silverish objects, such as a silver-tipped pikestaff, bullet or blade; this attribute was first adopted cinematically in The Wolf Human being.^[67] This negative reaction to silver is sometimes so strong that the mere touch of the metallic on a werewolf'southward pare will crusade burns. Current-solar day werewolf fiction almost exclusively involves lycanthropy being either a hereditary status or being transmitted similar an communicable diseases by the bite of some other werewolf. In some fiction, the power of the werewolf extends to human course, such as invulnerability to conventional injury due to their healing gene, superhuman speed and strength and falling on their feet from high falls. Also aggressiveness and animalistic urges may be intensified and more than difficult to command (hunger, sexual arousal). Ordinarily in these cases the abilities are macerated in human being class. In other fiction information technology can exist cured by medicine men or antidotes.

Along with the vulnerability to the silverish bullet, the full moon being the cause of the transformation but became part of the depiction of werewolves on a widespread basis in the twentieth century.^[71] The get-go flick to characteristic the transformative effect of the total moon was Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Homo in 1943.^[72]

Werewolves are typically envisioned as "working-class" monsters, often being low in socio-economic status, although they can stand for a variety of social classes and at times were seen equally a style of representing "aristocratic decadence" during 19th century horror literature.^{[73] [74] [75]}

Nazi Frg

Nazi Germany used Werwolf, equally the mythical creature's name is spelled in German, in 1942–43 equally the codename for one of Hitler'due south headquarters. In the war'due south final days, the Nazi "Operation Werwolf" aimed at creating a commando force that would operate backside enemy lines as the Allies advanced through Deutschland itself.

Two fictional depictions of "Operation Werwolf"—the United states of america television series Truthful Blood and the 2012 novel Wolf Hunter by J. 50. Benét—mix the two meanings of "Werwolf" by depicting the 1945 diehard Nazi commandos as being actual werewolves.^[76]

See also

• Damarchus
• Kitsune
• Nagual

Notes

1. ^ Likewise spelled werwolf. Ordinarily pronounced , only as well sometimes or .
2. ^ Lorey (2000) records 280 known cases; this contrasts with a total number of 12,000 recorded cases of executions for witchcraft, or an estimated grand total of virtually lx,000, corresponding to 2% or 0.5% respectively. The recorded cases span the menstruum of 1407 to 1725, peaking during the period of 1575–1657.
3. ^ Lorey (2000) records six trials in the period 1701 and 1725, all in either Styria or Carinthia; 1701 Paul Perwolf of Wolfsburg, Obdach, Styria (executed); 1705 "Vlastl" of Murau, Styria (verdict unknown); 1705/vi six beggars in Wolfsberg, Carinthia (executed); 1707/8 three shepherds in Leoben and Freyenstein, Styria (one lynching, 2 likely executions); 1718 Jakob Kranawitter, a mentally retarded ragamuffin, in Rotenfel, Oberwolz, Styria (corporeal punishment); 1725: Paul Schäffer, ragamuffin of St. Leonhard im Lavanttal, Carinthia (executed).

Citations

1. ^ "Werwolf" in Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch. "online version". uni-trier.de. Retrieved 2012-12-21 .
2. ^ "loup-garou". The American Heritage Lexicon of the English Language (four ed.). 2000. Archived from the original on 2006-01-13. Retrieved 2005-eleven-13 . "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: w-ro-". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English language Language (4 ed.). 2000. Archived from the original on 2008-05-12.
3. ^ Rose, C. (2000). Giants, Monsters & Dragons: An Encyclopedia of Folklore, Legend and Myth. New York: Norton. p. 230. ISBN0-393-32211-iv.
4. ^ In the entry on Marcellus of Side, stating that this 2nd-century writer wrote nigh the topic of lycanthropy. (Μ 205) Μάρκελλος Σιδήτης, ἰατρός, ἐπὶ Μάρκου Ἀντωνίνου. οὗτος ἔγραψε δι' ἐπῶν ἡρωϊκῶν βιβλία ἰατρικὰ δύο καὶ μʹ, ἐν οἷς καὶ περὶ λυκανθρώπου. (cited afterwards A. Adler, Suidae lexicon, Leipzig: Teubner, 1928-1935); see Suda Online
5. ^ Kim R. McCone, "Hund, Wolf, und Krieger bei den Indogermanen" in W. Meid (ed.), Studien zum indogermanischen Wortschatz, Innsbruck, 1987, 101-154
6. ^ Eisler, Robert (1948). Man Into Wolf - An Anthropological Interpretation of Sadism, Masochism, and Lycanthropy. ASIN B000V6D4PG.
7. ^ Herodotus. "IV.105". Histories.
8. ^ Pomponius Mela (1998). "2.14". Clarification of the world. De chorographia.English. Academy of Michigan Press. ISBN9780472107735.
9. ^ ^{a b} Pausanias. "viii.2". Description of Greece.
10. ^ Ovid. "I 219-239". Metamorphoses.
11. ^ Apollodorus. "3.8.i". Bibliotheca.
12. ^ Pausanias vi.eight.two
13. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, viii.82.
14. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, eight.81.
15. ^ The tale probably relates to a rite of passage for Arcadian' youths.Ogden, Daniel (2002). Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook. Oxford Academy Press. p. 178. ISBN0-19-513575-X.
16. ^ Ovid. "I". Metamorphoses.
17. ^ Ménard, Philippe (1984). "Les histoires de loup-garou au moyen-âge". Symposium in honorem prof. G. de Riquer (in French). Barcelona UP. pp. 209–38.
18. ^ Virgil. "eight". Eclogues. p. 98.
19. ^ Petronius (1996). Satyrica. R. Bracht Branham and Daniel Kinney. Berkeley: University of California. p. 56. ISBN0-520-20599-5.
20. ^ Augustine of Hippo, The City of God, Eighteen.17
21. ^ ^{a b} "Catechism Episcopi". world wide web.personal.utulsa.edu . Retrieved 2020-03-27 .
22. ^ Otten, Charlotte F. (1986). The Lycanthropy Reader: Werewolves in Western Civilisation. Syracuse: Syracuse University Printing. pp. 5–6. ISBN0815623844.
23. ^ Antapodosis 3.29
24. ^ Gervase of Tilbury, Otia Imperiala, Volume I, Affiliate 15, translated and edited by South.E. Banks and J.W. Binns, (Oxford: Oxford University Printing, 2002), 86 - 87.
25. ^ Georg Schepss, Conradus Hirsaugiensis (1889). Conradi Hirsaugiensis Dialogus super Auctores sive Didascalon: Eine Literaturgeschichte aus den XII (in Latin). Harvard University. A. Stuber.
26. ^ Pseudo-Augustine, Liber de Spiritu et Anima, Chapter 26, XVII
27. ^ Marie de France, "Bisclavret", translated past Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby, in The Lais of Marie de French republic (London: Penguin Books, 1999), 68.
28. ^ Gervase of Tilbury, Otia Imperiala, Book I, Chapter 15, translated and edited by S.Due east. Banks and J.W. Binns, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 87.
29. ^ Hopkins, Amanda (2005). Melion and Biclarel: 2 Old French Werewolf Lays. The University of Liverpool. ISBN0-9533816-ix-ii . Retrieved 26 May 2020.
30. ^ Baring-Gould, p. 100.
31. ^ Cynthia Grant Schonberger (January–March 1979). "Luther and the Justification of Resistance to Legitimate Authority". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. 40 (1): 3–20. doi:ten.2307/2709257. JSTOR 2709257. S2CID 55409226. ; equally specified in Luther's Nerveless Works, 39(two) 41-42
32. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l yard n o p} Woodward, Ian (1979). The Werewolf Mirage. Paddington Printing. ISBN0-448-23170-0. ^{[ unreliable source? ] [ folio needed ]}
33. ^ "iii". Demonologie.
34. ^ Hoyt, Nelly S.; Cassierer, Thomas, trans. (1965). The Encyclopedia: Selections: Diderot, d'Alembert and a Order of Men of Letters. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
35. ^ East. William Monter, "Witchcraft in France and Switzerland" in Otten (ed.) A Lycanthropy reader (1986), 161-167.
36. ^ "Is the fear of wolves justified? A Fennoscandian perspective" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 2003, Volumen 13, Numerus 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-03-07. Retrieved 2008-05-09 .
37. ^ Facundo Quiroga, "The Tiger of the Argentine Prairies" and the Fable of the "runa uturuncu". (in Spanish)
38. ^ The Fable of the runa uturuncu in the Mythology of the Latin-American Guerilla. (in Spanish)
39. ^ The Guaraní Myth about the Origin of Human Linguistic communication and the Tiger-men. (in Castilian)
40. ^ J.B. Ambrosetti (1976). Fantasmas de la selva misionera ("Ghosts of the Misiones Jungle"). Editorial Convergencia: Buenos Aires.
41. ^ Steiger, Brad (2011). The Werewolf Volume: The Encyclopedia of Shape-Shifting Beings. Visible Ink Press. p. 267. ISBN978-1578593675.
42. ^ Illis, Fifty (January 1964). "On Porphyria and the Ætiology of Werwolves". Proc R Soc Med. 57 (ane): 23–6. PMC1897308. PMID 14114172.
43. ^ ^{a b} Lopez, Barry (1978). Of Wolves and Men. New York: Scribner Classics. ISBN0-7432-4936-4. OCLC 54857556.
44. ^ Dening T R & West A (1989) Multiple serial lycanthropy. Psychopathology 22: 344-347
45. ^ Ebbe Schön (2011-05-16). "Varulv". Väsen (in Swedish). SVT. Archived from the original on 2011-04-14. Retrieved 2011-05-16 .
46. ^ ^{a b} Bennett, Aaron. "So, You Want to exist a Werewolf?" Fate. Vol. 55, no. 6, Issue 627. July 2002.
47. ^ O'Donnell, Elliot. Werwolves. Methuen. London. 1912. pp. 65-67.
48. ^ Gershenson, Daniel. Apollo the Wolf-God. (Periodical of Indo- European Studies, Monograph, 8.) McLean, Virginia: Institute for the Study of Man, 1991, ISBN 0-941694-38-0 pp. 136-7.
49. ^ Szabó, György. Mitológiai kislexikon, I-Two., Budapest: Merényi Könyvkiadó (év nélkül) Mitólogiai kislexikon.
50. ^ Willis, Roy; Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1997). World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide. Piaktus. ISBN0-7499-1739-three. OCLC 37594992.
51. ^ The Fables of Mkhitar Gosh (New York, 1987), translated with an introduction past R. Bedrosian, edited by Elise Antreassian and illustrated by Anahid Janjigian
52. ^ Legends of Grosse Pointe.
53. ^ Ashliman, D. Fifty. "Werewolf Legends from Germany". pitt.edu . Retrieved January 1, 2022.
54. ^ Robert Jackson (1995) Witchcraft and the Occult. Devizes, Quintet Publishing: 25.
55. ^ Baud'huin, Benoît; Bonet, Alain (1995). Gévaudan: petites histoires de la grande bête (in French). Ex Aequo Éditions. p. 193. ISBN978-2-37873-070-three.
56. ^ Crouzet, Guy (2001). La grande peur du Gévaudan (in French). Guy Crouzet. pp. 156–158. ISBN2-9516719-0-iii.
57. ^ S. Baring-Gould. "The Book of Were-Wolves". (1865)
58. ^ Temme, J.D.H. Die Volkssagen von Pommern und Rugen. Translated past D.L. Ashliman. Berlin: In de Nicolaischen Buchhandlung, 1840.
59. ^ Sellers, Susan. Myth and Fairy Tale in Gimmicky Women'southward Fiction, Palgrave Macmillan (2001) p. 85.
60. ^ Stoker, Brett. Dracula's Guest (PDF). p. 11. "A wolf--and yet not a wolf!" ... "No apply trying for him without the sacred bullet," a third remarked
61. ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 3, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 42. 'We Szekelys take a right to be proud, for in our veins flows the blood of many brave races who fought every bit the lion fights, for lordship. Hither, in the whirlpool of European races, the Ugric tribe diameter downward from Iceland the fighting spirit which Thor and Wodin gave them, which their Berserkers displayed to such fell intent on the seaboards of Europe, aye, and of Asia and Africa as well, till the peoples thought that the werewolves themselves had come. {{cite volume}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
62. ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 18, Mina Harker's Journal. His power ceases, equally does that all of all evil things, at the coming of the twenty-four hours. Only at certain times can he have limited freedom. If he be non at the identify whither he is bound, he can only change himself at noon or verbal sunrise or sunset. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
63. ^ Chantal Bourgault Du Coudray, The Expletive of the Werewolf : Fantasy, Horror and the Animate being Within. London: I.B. Tauris, 2006. ISBN 9781429462655 (p. 112, 169)
64. ^ ^{a b} Searles B (1988). Films of Scientific discipline Fiction and Fantasy. Harry N. Abrams. pp. 165–67. ISBN0-8109-0922-seven.
65. ^ Clemens, pp. 119-20.
66. ^ Clemens, pp. 117-18.
67. ^ ^{a b} Clemens, p. 120.
68. ^ Steiger, Brad (1999). The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Farmington Hills, MI: Visible Ink. p. 12. ISBNi-57859-078-seven. OCLC 41565057.
69. ^ Steiger, Brad (1999). The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Visible Ink. p. 330. ISBN1-57859-078-7. OCLC 41565057.
70. ^ Steiger, Brad (1999). The Werewolf Volume: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Visible Ink. ISBN1-57859-078-7. OCLC 41565057. p. 17.
71. ^ Andrzej Wicher; Piotr Spyra; Joanna Matyjaszczyk (xix November 2014). Bones Categories of Fantastic Literature Revisited. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 95–96. ISBN978-1-4438-7143-3.
72. ^ Glut, Donald F. (2002). The Frankenstein Annal. McFarland. p. 19. ISBN0786413530.
73. ^ Crossen, Carys Elizabeth. The Nature of the Beast: Transformations of the Werewolf from the 1970s to the 20-first Century. University of Wales Press, 2019, p.206
74. ^ Senn, Bryan. The Werewolf Filmography: 300+ Movies. McFarland, 2017, p.8
75. ^ Wilson, Natalie. Seduced by Twilight: The allure and contradictory messages of the popular saga. McFarland, 2014, p.39
76. ^ Boissoneault, Lorraine. "The Nazi Werewolves Who Terrorized Allied Soldiers at the End of WWII". Smithsonian Magazine. The Smithsonian. Retrieved 27 May 2020.

References

Secondary sources

• Baring-Gould, Sabine (1865). The Book of Werewolves: Beingness an Business relationship of a Terrible Superstition. London: Smith, Elderberry & Co. Google Books
• Douglas, Adam (1992). The Beast Within: A History of the Werewolf . London: Chapmans. ISBN0-380-72264-X.
• Goens, Jean (1993). Loups-garous, vampires et autres monstres : enquêtes médicales et littéraires. Paris: CNRS Editions.
• Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, four, ii. and iii.
• Hertz, Der Werwolf (Stuttgart, 1862)
• Lecouteux, Claude, Fées, Sorcières et Loups-garous, Éditions Imago, Paris (1992), trans. Clare Frock, Witches, Werewolves, and Fairies: Shapeshifters and Astral Doubles in the Middle Ages, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, Vermont (2003), ISBN 0-89281-096-3
• Leubuscher, Über die Wehrwölfe (1850)
• O'Donnell, Elliot (1912). Werewolves.
• Otten, Charlotte (ed.), A Lycanthropy reader: werewolves in Western culture, Syracuse University Printing, 1986.
• Sconduto, Leslie A. Metamorphoses of the werewolf: a literary report from artifact through the Renaissance.
• Stewart, Caroline Taylor (1909). The origin of the werewolf superstition. University of Missouri Studies.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Werwolf". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Primary sources

• Wolfeshusius, Johannes Fridericus. De Lycanthropia: An vere illi, ut fama est, luporum & aliarum bestiarum formis induantur. Problema philosophicum pro sententia Joan. Bodini ... adversus dissentaneas aliquorum opiniones noviter assertum... Leipzig: Typis Abrahami Lambergi, 1591. (In Latin; microfilm held by the Us National Library of Medicine)
• Prieur, Claude. Dialogue de la Lycanthropie: Ou transformation d'hommes en loups, vulgairement dits loups-garous, et si telle se peut faire. Louvain: J. Maes & P. Zangre, 1596.
• Bourquelot and Jean de Nynauld, De la Lycanthropie, Transformation et Extase des Sorciers (Paris, 1615).
• Summers, Montague, The Werewolf London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1933. (1st edition, reissued 1934 New York: E. P. Dutton; 1966 New Hyde Park, N.Y.: Academy Books; 1973 Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press; 2003 Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, with new title The Werewolf in Lore and Legend). ISBN 0-7661-3210-2

External links

Await upward werewolf in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Werewolf

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Werewolves.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werewolf

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